Land Governance in Pakistan: Key Challenges

Land is one of Pakistan’s most vital resources, serving as the foundation of its agrarian economy and a key determinant of social and economic power. However, the country’s land governance system is plagued by inefficiencies, inequalities, and corruption, undermining both agricultural productivity and rural livelihoods. Despite employing 37.4% of the labor force, agriculture contributes only 22.7% to the national GDP, highlighting deep-rooted structural challenges.

A major issue is the extreme concentration of land ownership. Just 5% of landowners control over 64% of arable land, while millions of rural households either remain landless or own plots too small for meaningful agricultural production. This disparity fuels rural poverty, limits economic mobility, and perpetuates feudal structures that hinder equitable development. At the same time, tenancy arrangements often leave small farmers vulnerable to exploitation, with little security or access to credit for investment in their land.

Adding to these challenges, rapid urbanization is encroaching on fertile agricultural land, leading to the expansion of informal settlements and haphazard real estate development. Meanwhile, climate change exacerbates land degradation, water scarcity, and desertification, further threatening agricultural sustainability. Weak land administration systems, outdated land records, and lack of transparency in property transactions make matters worse, enabling corruption and land grabbing.

Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive reform agenda, including land redistribution policies, digitalization of land records, stronger legal protections for tenant farmers, and climate-resilient land management strategies. Ensuring equitable access to land is not just a matter of economic efficiency but also of social justice. By adopting inclusive and sustainable land governance practices, Pakistan can create a more balanced and productive agricultural sector, fostering long-term rural development and economic stability.

Historical Context: Colonial Legacies and Post-Independence Failures

Pakistan’s land governance system is deeply entrenched in its colonial past, shaping the country’s rural economy and social structures to this day. Under British rule, the zamindari system granted tax-collection rights to loyal elites, consolidating feudal power while marginalizing peasants. Land revenue laws prioritized taxation over equitable distribution, ensuring that land remained concentrated in the hands of a few. When Pakistan gained independence in 1947, it inherited this exploitative framework, and despite various attempts at reform, the colonial-era land structures have largely persisted, reinforcing inequality and stagnating rural development.

Post-independence, successive governments recognized the need for land reform, but efforts were half-hearted and ultimately failed to bring meaningful change. The land reforms of 1959, 1972, and 1977 sought to impose ceilings on landholdings and redistribute surplus land to landless farmers. However, these reforms were riddled with loopholes that allowed large landowners to evade restrictions. Many circumvented land ceilings by transferring property to relatives or exploiting legal exemptions, effectively nullifying the intended redistribution. As a result, only about 5% of agricultural land changed hands, leaving the deeply entrenched feudal structure intact.

Political and military elites, many of whom were themselves large landowners, resisted substantive reform. The lack of political will and weak enforcement mechanisms ensured that rural elites continued to dominate, maintaining an economic and social hierarchy that benefited the few at the expense of the many. Tenant farmers remained vulnerable to exploitation, lacking legal protection and access to credit necessary for improving their agricultural productivity. This persistent inequality has contributed to rural poverty, low agricultural output, and limited social mobility, keeping millions of farmers trapped in cycles of economic dependence.

In addition to feudal dominance, modern land governance issues, including outdated land records, lack of transparency, and corruption—continue to exacerbate land-related inequalities. Without addressing these historical and structural challenges, Pakistan’s agriculture sector will struggle to achieve sustainable growth and equity. Genuine land reform, backed by strong political commitment, remains essential for breaking the cycle of rural poverty and creating a more just and productive agricultural economy.

Contemporary Challenges in Land Governance

Feudalism remains deeply entrenched in Pakistan’s rural economy, particularly in the provinces of Sindh and Punjab. Large landowners, known as waderas, control extensive estates and hold significant political and economic power. This influence allows them to manipulate tenancy laws, often to the detriment of small farmers and sharecroppers. Tenant farmers, or haris, usually receive only 25-50% of their harvest as payment, leaving them in a cycle of economic dependency. Moreover, they lack secure tenure rights, discouraging them from making long-term investments in land improvement, which further diminishes agricultural productivity. This feudal system perpetuates rural inequality, keeping millions of farmers in poverty with little hope of social mobility.

Another significant challenge in land governance is the continuous fragmentation of land holdings. Islamic inheritance laws require land to be divided among heirs, and over generations, this has resulted in increasingly smaller plots of land. Currently, around 65% of Pakistan’s farms are under five hectares, making them economically unviable. Small landholdings limit mechanization and efficient agricultural practices, reducing productivity and income for farmers. With shrinking farm sizes, subsistence farming becomes more common, forcing many rural families into debt or pushing them toward urban migration in search of alternative livelihoods.

Urbanization has introduced additional complexities to Pakistan’s land governance system. Major cities like Karachi, Lahore, and Islamabad have experienced rapid population growth, increasing the demand for land and housing. In response, land mafias—often supported by political or military elites—have illegally occupied state and private land, selling it to developers or individuals without proper legal oversight. Karachi, the country’s largest city, illustrates the scale of this problem, with over 62% of its population living in informal settlements (katchi abadis). These settlements often lack basic services such as clean water, sanitation, and electricity, exposing residents to poor living conditions and the constant threat of eviction. Weak urban planning and corruption in land administration have allowed these issues to persist, with little accountability for those responsible for illegal land seizures.

Gender inequality is another pressing issue in Pakistan’s land governance system. While legal provisions technically grant women inheritance rights, cultural norms and patriarchal traditions often prevent them from claiming or controlling land. A 2023 World Bank report found that only 3% of Pakistan’s agricultural land is owned by women. This disparity has far-reaching implications, as land ownership is a crucial factor in economic security. Women who are denied land ownership have limited access to credit and financial resources, making it harder for them to invest in agriculture or other businesses. Additionally, landlessness makes women more vulnerable to economic exploitation and domestic violence. Without addressing gender disparities in land ownership, Pakistan cannot achieve meaningful social or economic progress.

Environmental degradation is another critical challenge affecting land governance. Deforestation, soil erosion, and unsustainable farming practices have severely degraded Pakistan’s arable land. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Pakistan loses approximately 27,000 hectares of forest annually, contributing to soil degradation and declining agricultural productivity. Climate change further exacerbates these problems. Pakistan ranks among the most climate-vulnerable countries in the world, regularly experiencing extreme weather events such as floods, droughts, and heatwaves. The devastating 2022 floods submerged 4.4 million acres of land and displaced over 8 million people, underscoring the urgent need for climate-resilient land-use planning. Many of the worst-affected communities were already marginalized, living on insecure land without legal protections or access to resources. Without significant intervention, environmental and climate-related threats will continue to destabilize Pakistan’s land governance system, deepening social and economic inequalities.

Institutional and Legal Failures

Pakistan’s land administration system suffers from deep-rooted corruption, inefficiency, and a lack of transparency. Land records are still maintained manually by patwaris (revenue officers), a system inherited from the colonial era. This outdated system is highly vulnerable to manipulation, with land titles often being forged or tampered with. The process of registering land transactions or resolving disputes frequently involves bribery, making it difficult for ordinary citizens—especially the poor—to assert their property rights. This systemic corruption allows influential individuals to illegally acquire land while depriving marginalized communities of their rightful claims.

One of the most damaging consequences of this flawed system is the backlog of land-related legal cases. Currently, over 1.4 million land disputes are pending in Pakistani courts, with some cases unresolved for decades. The slow judicial process, combined with the high cost of litigation, disproportionately affects low-income individuals who lack the resources to fight prolonged legal battles. For many, land disputes result in financial ruin or force them to abandon their claims altogether, reinforcing existing inequalities.

Despite the existence of various laws and policies intended to improve land governance, enforcement remains weak. The 2016 National Land Use Policy, for example, aimed to regulate urban expansion, prevent encroachment on agricultural land, and promote sustainable development. However, due to a lack of political will and institutional capacity, its implementation has been minimal. Similarly, legal protections for tenant farmers and women’s inheritance rights are routinely ignored, rendering these laws ineffective. Without a stronger commitment to enforcement, land governance in Pakistan will continue to be dominated by powerful elites at the expense of vulnerable populations.

Pathways to Reform

Addressing land inequality in Pakistan requires bold and comprehensive reforms that focus on redistribution, secure tenancy rights, and improved governance. One of the most pressing issues is the concentration of landownership, which has left millions of rural households landless or struggling with small, unviable plots. To tackle this, progressive land ceilings must be enforced to prevent large-scale land monopolization. Any surplus land should be redistributed to landless farmers, ensuring equitable access to resources. Additionally, tenancy laws need to be strengthened to provide farmers with secure contracts that outline fair profit-sharing arrangements. By guaranteeing tenant rights and incentivizing investment in land improvement, agricultural productivity can be significantly enhanced.

A key reform needed in land governance is the digitization of land records. The current manual system is prone to corruption, manipulation, and inefficiency, leading to countless disputes and legal battles. Punjab’s Land Record Management Information System (LRMIS) has proven to be a successful model by providing online access to land records, streamlining transactions, and reducing conflicts. Scaling up this system nationwide, along with investments in technology and capacity-building, would bring much-needed transparency and efficiency to land governance.

Gender inequality in landownership is another challenge that must be addressed through both legal and cultural shifts. While Pakistan’s laws grant women inheritance rights, enforcement remains weak due to deep-rooted patriarchal norms. Legal reforms should be coupled with awareness campaigns and mobile courts to ensure that women can claim their rightful share of land. Joint land titling, where both spouses are legally recognized as landowners, can further promote gender equity and economic empowerment.

Sustainable land use is crucial in the face of climate change and environmental degradation. Integrating climate resilience into land-use planning through Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping can help regulate construction in flood-prone areas and prevent disasters. Additionally, promoting agroforestry and sustainable farming practices can restore degraded lands, improve soil fertility, and enhance long-term food security.

Finally, grassroots movements play a crucial role in driving systemic change. Organizations like the Pakistan Kissan Rabita Committee advocate for land rights and challenge elite control over land resources. Strengthening these movements, fostering alliances with civil society, and amplifying the voices of marginalized communities can push for meaningful reforms and greater accountability in land governance.

Conclusion

Land governance in Pakistan remains a critical issue that shapes the country’s economic stability, social justice, and environmental sustainability. The persistence of feudal structures, land fragmentation, urban encroachment, and gender disparities continues to hinder equitable development. Without addressing these systemic problems, millions of rural and urban households will remain trapped in cycles of poverty and vulnerability. The inefficiencies and corruption within Pakistan’s land administration system further exacerbate these challenges, preventing fair access to land and legal protection for marginalized communities.

However, meaningful reforms can pave the way for a more just and productive land governance framework. Implementing land redistribution policies, strengthening tenancy rights, and digitizing land records are essential steps toward reducing inequality and improving agricultural productivity. Ensuring that women have legal and cultural support to claim their inheritance rights can promote economic security and empowerment. Moreover, integrating climate-resilient land-use strategies is crucial for mitigating environmental degradation and preparing for future climate challenges.

Grassroots movements and political mobilization remain vital in driving change. By fostering alliances between civil society, policymakers, and affected communities, Pakistan can push for more inclusive and transparent land governance. Sustainable and equitable land policies will not only enhance agricultural efficiency but also lay the foundation for long-term economic growth and social justice.

Please note that the views expressed in this article are of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of any organization.

Madeeha is affiliated with the Faculty of Social Sciences, Sindh Agricultrue University Tando Jam, Sindh, Pakistan

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